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itive psychological research is to invent experiments that confirm
each of the components of models that combine serial and parallel, and controlled and
automatic processes
II.Language Use
A. Language Production
1. Language production concerns what people say, as well as the
processes they go through to produce the message
a) Includes both signing and writing, as well as speaking
b) Refers to language producers as speakers and to language
understanders as listeners
2. Audience design requires that, on producing an utterance, one must
have in mind the audience to which that utterance is directed and
what knowledge you share with members of that audience
a) The Cooperative Principle is instructs to speakers to produce
utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the
ongoing conversation. There are four maxims that cooperative
speakers should live by:
(i) Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is
required, but do not make it more informative than
required
(ii) Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true
(iii) Relation: Be relevant
(iv) Manner: Be perspicacious, avoid obscurity of
expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly
b) A presumption of the listener knowing all that you know is
referred to as common ground. Judgments of common ground
are based on three sources of evidence:
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(i) Community membership: Assumptions made by
language producers about what is likely to be
mutually known, based on shared membership in
communities of various sizes
(ii) Linguistic copresence: Assumptions made by language
producers that information contained in earlier parts
of a conversation, or in past conversations, are
common ground
(iii) Physical copresence: Exists when a speaker and a
listener are directly in the physical presence of objects
or situations
3. Speech Execution and Speech Errors
a) Speech errors give researchers insight into the planning
needed to produce utterances
(i) Speakers must choose content words that best fit their
ideas
(ii) Speakers must place the chosen words in the right
place in the utterance
(iii) Speakers must fill in the sounds that make up the
words they wish to utter
b) Spoonerisms–one type of speech error–consist of an exchange
of the initial sounds of two or more words in a phrase or
sentence. Spoonerisms are more likely to occur when the error
will still result in real words
c) Spontaneous and laboratory induced errors provide evidence
about processes and representations in speech execution
B. Language Understanding
1. Resolving ambiguity involves detangling two types of ambiguity
a) Structural ambiguity involves determining which of two (or
more) meanings the structure of a sentence implies, and is
dependent largely on prior context for resolution
b) Lexical ambiguity involves determining which of the various
meanings of a word may be appropriate in this context. To
eliminate this ambiguity is referred to as “disambiguating”
the word. Two models are proposed for disambiguation.
(i) The constant order model states that, regardless of the
context preceding the use of a word, its meanings are
always tested in constant order, from most to least
likely
(ii) The reordering by context model states that the
context that precedes a word can change the order in
which one tests its multiple definitions
(iii) Context actively affects listener’s consideration of the
meanings of ambiguous words
2. Products of Understanding
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CHAPTER 9: COGNITIVE PROCESSES
a) Research suggests that meaning representations that follow
understanding of utterances or texts begin with basic units
called propositions. Propositions are the main ideas of
utterances.
b) Listeners often fill gaps in information with inferences.
Inferences are logical assumptions made possible by
information in memory.
C. Language, Thought, and Culture
1. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that differences in language create
differences in thought. The hypothesis contains two tenets:
a) Linguistic Relativity suggests that structural differences
between languages will generally be paralleled by
nonlinguistic cognitive differences in the native speakers of
the two languages
b) Linguistic Determinism suggests that the structure of a
language strongly influences or fully determines the way its
native speakers perceive and reason about the world
2. Research does not support the strong claim of linguistic determinism
that language is destiny, although it does support the weaker claim
that language differences yield parallel cognitive differences
III. Visual Cognition
A. Using Visual Representations
1. Reaction time required for mental manipulation of rotated visual
images was in direct proportion to the degree that the image had been
rotated
2. Consistency of reaction time suggested that the process of mental
rotation was very similar to the process of physical rotation of objects
3. People scan visual images as if they were scanning real objects
B. Combining Verbal and Visual Representations
1. Spatial mental models are often formed to capture properties of real and
imagined spatial experiences
2. In reading descriptive passages, people often form a spatial mental
model to keep track of the whereabouts of characters
3. When people think about the world around them, they almost always
combine visual and verbal representations of information
IV. Problem Solving and Reasoning
A. Both require combination of current information with information stored in memory to
work toward a particular goal, a conclusion or a solution
B. Problem solving
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
1. The formal definition of a problem space, of how a problem is defined in
real life, captures three elements:
a) An initial state—the incomplete information or unsatisfactory
conditions with which you start
b) A goal state—the set of information or state of the world you
hope to achieve
c) A set of operations—the steps you may take to move from the
initial state to the goal state
2. Well-defined problems have the initial state, the goal state, and the
operations all clearly specified
3. An ill-defined problem exists when the initial state, the goal state,
and/or the operations may be unclear and vaguely specified
4. Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that always provide the right
answer to a particular type of problem
5. Heuristics are strategies or “rules of thumb” that problem solvers often
use when algorithms are not available
6. Think-aloud proto
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