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1. The consistency paradox refers to the observation that personality
ratings across time and different observers are consistent, while
behavior ratings of a person across situations are not consistent
2. Paradox refers to levels of analysis, the use of specific vs. summary
types of data, rather than to actual consistency
3. Different situations are more or less likely to “allow” expression of
traits, with those situations most likely to influence behavior occurring
when:
a) Situations are novel
b) Situations are ill-defined, offering multiple alternatives but
without guidelines on propriety
c) Situations are stressful or challenging
4. Forced definition of traits in a more precise manner resulted in the
observation that personality is not about behavioral consistency,
rather it is a matter of patterns of behavioral coherence
E. Evaluation of Type and Trait Theories
1. Criticism based on fact that these theories do not generally explain
how behavior is generated, or how personality develops; they only
identify and describe characteristics correlated with behavior
2. Trait theories typically portray a static (or at least stabilized) view of
personality structure, as it currently exists
III. Psychodynamic Theories
A. Common to all psychodynamic personality theories is the assumption that powerful inner
forces shape personality and motivate behavior
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B. Freudian Psychoanalysis
1. Freud’s theory attempts to explain:
a) Origins and course of personality development
b) Nature of mind
c) Aspects of abnormal personality
d) Ways personality can be changed by therapy
2. Presumes the core of personality to be the events within a person’s
mind (intrapsychic events) that motivate behavior
3. Freud presumed all behavior was motivated, that so-called chance or
accidents did not cause behavior, but were determined by motives
4. Drives and Psychosexual Development
a) Postulating a common biological basis for behavioral patterns
observed in his patients, Freud ascribed motivational source
to psychic energy within each individual
b) Individuals presumed to have inborn instincts or drives that
were tension systems
c) Freud originally postulated two basic drives:
(i) Self-preservation, associated with the ego
(ii) Eros is related to sexual urges and preservation of the
species, and is used with the term libido to identify
source of energy for sexual urges
d) After World War I, Freud added Thanatos, the concept of the
death instinct
e) Eros operates from birth, and is evident in infants’ pleasure in
stimulation of erogenous zones, leading Freud to posit that
the physical source of sexual pleasures changed in an orderly
progression (i.e., five stages of psychosexual development)
5. Psychic determinism: Assumption that all mental and behavioral
reactions are determined by earlier experiences, leading to belief in
unconscious processes
a) Freud believed behavior has both manifest and latent content
(i) Manifest content of behavior refers to what one says,
does, and perceives (indicating awareness)
(ii) Latent content includes neurotic symptoms, dreams,
slips of the pens and slips of the tongue at the
unconscious level of and information-processing
6. The Structure of Personality
a) Id: Storehouse of fundamental drives, operating irrationally
and on impulse, pushing for expression and immediate
gratification; governed by the pleasure principle
b) Superego: Storehouse of individual’s values, including moral
values; corresponds roughly to the notion of conscience
(i) The inner voice of “oughts” and “should nots”
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(ii) Includes ego ideal, the individual’s view of the kind
of person he/she should strive to become
(iii) Often in conflict with the id
c) Ego: Reality-based aspect of the self, arbitrating conflict
between id’s impulses and superego’s demands and choosing
actions that gratify id without undesirable consequences
(i) Governed by the reality principle
(ii) When id and superego conflict, ego arranges a
compromise both can live with
7. Repression and Ego Defense
a) Repression is the psychological process that protects the
individual from experiencing extreme anxiety or guilt about
impulses, ideas, or memories that are unacceptable and / or
dangerous to express. Ego’s most basic defense against being
overwhelmed by id and superego
b) Ego defense mechanisms are mental strategies used by the ego to
defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses that
seek expression, and the superego’s demand to deny them
c) Anxiety is an intense emotional response, triggered when
repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness.
Signals that repression is not working, and a second line-ofdefense
to relieve anxiety is required
C. Evaluation of Freudian Theory
1. Bases for criticism
a) Conceptually vague and not operationally defined, making
scientific evaluation of the theory difficult
b) Freudian psychoanalytic theory is “good history, but bad
science”
(i) Unreliable predictive power
(ii) Is applied retrospectively
(iii) Typically involves historical reconstruction, rather
than scientific construction of probable actions and
predictable outcomes
(iv) Directs focus away from current stimuli that may be
inducing and maintaining the behavior
c) Psychoanalytic theory is a developmental theory, but never
included studies of children
d) Minimizes traumatic experiences by reinterpreting memories
of them as fantasies
e) Male-as-norm model makes theory androcentric
2. Modifications and improvements
a) Ongoing research reveals much of daily experience is shaped
by processes outside of awareness
b) Freud’s theory is the most complex, compelling, and
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comprehensive view of both normal and abnormal
personality functioning, even when its predictions are wrong
3. Like any theory, Freud’s theory must be treated as unconfirmed until it
can be confirmed, element by element
D. Post-Freudian Theories
1. Intellectual descendants of Freud made several changes in the
psychoanalytic view of personality
a) More emphasis on ego functions
b) Social variables viewed as playing a more significant role in
shaping of personality
c) Less emphasis on importance of libidinal energy
d) Extension of personality development beyond childhood,
including the entire life span
2. Alfred Adler
a) Alfred Adler rejected the significance of Eros and the pleasure
principle
b) Adler believed personality structured around striving to
overcome feelings of inferiority
3. Karen Horney
a) Challenged Freud’s phallo-centric emphasis
b) Placed greater emphasis on cultural factors
c) Focused on present character structure rather than on
infantile sexuality
4. Carl Jung expanded the conception of the unconscious to include the:
a) Collective unconsc
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