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others or formulated into symbols (i.e., language).
Around 12 to 18 months of life, trial-and-error language begins to appear, with early sounds being
imitations of those in the environment This represents the parataxic mode, and it ushers in the
second stage of personality development. The parataxic mode is a way of experiencing internal and
external stimuli that is characterized by use of private symbols and a lack of the conventional
concepts of cause and effect.
Past infancy and moving into childhood, we see the development of the self-system, the organized
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CHAPTER 14: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY
perception of one’s self. The self-system includes the desirable “good-me” and the undesirable
“bad-me.” The system is a result of experiences with one’s own body and the reflected opinions of
significant others, and has anxiety reduction as its primary goal.
Epoch 2: Childhood. Children now begin to develop use of language and to acquire responses for
averting anxiety and parental punishment. These responses include deception, rationalization,
behaving in the way parents expect in order to please them, and increasing the use of sublimation.
Of course, some punishment does inevitably occur, and this results in growth of the “bad-me” part
of the self-system. As long as parents continue to reinforce the “good-me” part of the child’s self-
system, the child will adjust normally.
Epoch 3: The Juvenile Era. This epoch begins with the emergence of the need for playmates, which
is about the time the child enters school. The syntaxic mode becomes prominent now, and is the most
highly developed mode of experiencing internal and external stimuli. This mode is characterized by
use of socially understood symbols (i.e., words and numbers), and by the understanding of
conventional ideas of cause and effect. According to Sullivan, the ability to live with and among
other people will have developed by the end of this epoch.
Epoch 4: Preadolescence. This stage begins with the emergence of the need for a more intimate
relationship with a specific member of the same sex; Sullivan called this individual the chum. The
need for the chum appears around ages 8 to 10 years, and Sullivan considered this relationship
critical to the child’s future ability to form intimate relationships of both a sexual and nonsexual
nature during the adult years. Sullivan felt that an effective chumship could be instrumental in
altering excessive egocentricity (such as tendencies to pout when things go wrong), over
dependence and irresponsibility, and the misguided belief that we should be liked by everyone. He
saw the chum as a sort of reality check between childhood and adolescence. In addition, during
this period, we see the formation of the first structured social groups, such as scout troops.
Epoch 5: Early Adolescence. This epoch begins with puberty and the appearance of the lust
dynamism that leads to the desire for a close relationship with a member of the opposite sex.
Sullivan felt this period to be a great one for maladjustment, due to the societal restrictions on the
adolescent’s ability
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